| Rules | Examples |
| If the subject is material for the verb "be", ある is used. |
鶏小屋は庭にある。(A chicken house is in the garden.) 傘は取っ手に掛けてある。(An umbrella is on the handle. ; Subject for "掛けて" is not "an umbrella".) |
| If the subject is living thing, いる is used. Even if for material, if a verb (except for "be") is used for the subject, いる is used. Also in passive cases. (There are exceptional cases in dialects.) |
鶏は庭にいる。(A chicken is in the garden.) 休日は家にいる。((I am) home on holidays.) 花は庭に咲いている。(A flower is blooming in the garden. ; "Blooming" is a verb other than "be".) 傘は取っ手に掛けられている。(An umbrella is on the handle. ; Subject for "掛けられて" is "an umbrella".) |
| Rules | Examples |
| If the noun is in the same position that can also be the subject, と is used. | 私は、彼と仲が悪い。(I'm not in a good relation with him.) |
| If the noun is a tool to do, で is used. | 石鹸で手を洗え。(Wash hands with soap.) |
| Rules | Examples |
| If the verb is rather active, or the object is where some action comes from, で is used. |
鶏は庭で鳴いている。(A checken is cooing in the garden.)
バーベキューは庭でする。(Bargecue is done in the garden.) 泥棒は庭で（or に）じっとしていた。(The thief was breathing still in the garden. ; To be still is an active deed.) |
| On the contrary, if the verb is either static, passive, asking, relying or at least tranquil, or the object is where some action goes to, に is used. |
傘は取っ手に掛けてある。(An umbrella is on the handle. ; Static. As "an umbrella" is not who "hang".)
傘は取っ手に掛けられている。(An umbrella is on the handle. ; "An umbrella" is passive.) 荷物は玄関に放置された。(Package was left at the entrance. ; Passive.) 彼の習字は筆に頼っていた。(His carrigraphy was relying on the brush. ; Relying.) コスモスは庭に（or で）咲いている。(Cosmos is blooming in the garden. ; "To bloom" is rather tranquil.) |
| Types | Rules | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| SN, SA or SV | One of "は", "が" or "も" usually follows the subject. They are not verbs but have similar function as "be" in English grammar. |
ペンギンは鳥だ。(SN: Penguin is a bird.) 海は美しい。(SA(adjective): The sea is beautiful.) 海は穏やかだ。(SA(adjective-verb): The sea is tranquil.) 君はきれいだ。(SA(adjective-verb): You are beautiful.) 私もきれいだ。(SA(adjective-verb): I also am beautiful.) 私だってきれいだ。(SA(adjective-verb): I also am beautiful.) 私は歩く。(SV: I walk.) |
| SON, SOA | In English, same function is realized using a verb "be". |
彼は心根が仏だ。(SON: His mind is Budda.)
彼女は髪が美しい。(SOA: Her hair is beautiful. She is beautiful at hair(a little strange English though).) 彼は魚が嫌いだ。(SOA: He hates fish.) この作家は名前が知られている。(SOA: This writer's name is well known.) この豆腐には味が沁みている。(COA: This tofu is seasoned well.) このブランドは値段がたかが知れている。(SOOA: This brand is not so expensive.) |
| SOV | Sentence pattern that has an object. |
猫は魚を食べる。(SOV: Cats eat fish.) 猫は野菜は食べない。(SOV) --- 野菜は猫は食べない。(OSV: Cats don't eat vegetables) are both possible. They are safe from misunderstanding, however, logically ambiguous. "を", which is only used for objects can resolve ambiguities. 猫が野菜を食べることはない。(SOVSA) is a complete expression for this case. 彼は魚を嫌う。(SOV: He hates fish.) |
| SCV, SOCV | Sentence pattern that has a complement. | Examples are stated in the next table. |
| type and part |
basic | however =basic+は |
also =basic+も |
subject | object (noun +adj.) |
object (verb) |
with | by,in, on,at |
to | for, until |
from | than | examples |
| SN, SA, SV |
が(ga) | は(wa) | も(mo) | ✔ | 台湾は島だ。(SN: Taiwan is an island.)
その山は高い。(SA: The mountain is high.) 私が挙手しました。(SV: I raised a hand.) 君は挙手しなかった。(SV: You didn't raise a hand.) 彼女も意見に賛成した。(SCV: She also was for the opinion.) |
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| SON, SOA | が(ga) | は(wa) | も(mo) | ✔ | 私はパンが好物だ。(SON: I like bread.)
私はパンが好きだ。(SOA: I like bread.) 君はライ麦パンは好きか？(SOA: Do you like rye-bread?) 私はご飯も好きだ。(SOA: I like rice also.) 彼女は髪が長い。(SOA: She has a long hair.) 君は業績が世間で評価されている。(SOCA: Your work is respected in the world.) |
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| SOV | を(o) | は(wa) | も(mo) | ✔ | ヨーロッパはフランスを含む。(SOV: Europe includes France.)
ヨーロッパはブラジルは含まない。(SOV: Europe doesn't include Brazil.) 溺れる者は藁（を）も掴む。(SOV: Who struggles in the water grips even a straw.) |
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| をも(omo) | |||||||||||||
| SCV, SOCV |
と(to) | とは(towa) | とも(tomo) | ✔ | 卓球を彼女とせよ。(OCV: Play tabletennis with her.)
私はテニスを彼女とはしたくない。(SOCV: I don't want to play tennis with her.) 私は、彼とも仲が悪い。(SCOA; I'm neither in good relation with him.) |
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| で(de) | では(dewa) | でも(demo) | ✔ | ✔ | 石鹸で手を洗え。(COV: Wash hands with soap.)
野菜は洗剤では洗わない方がいい。(OCVSA: You might not wash vegetables with detergent.) 写真はスマホでも撮れる。(OCV: You can take a picture also with a smart-phone.) 彼は報告書を手書きで作った。(SOCV: He made up a report by hand.) 虫が庭で鳴いている。(SCV: Bugs are singing in the garden.) 鳥が枝で鳴いている。(SCV: A bird is singing on a branch.) 長針は6で止まっている。(SCV: The long needle is stopping at six.) 私の父親は90歳で亡くなった。(SCV: My father died at ninety.) |
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| に(ni) | には(niwa) | にも(nimo) | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | この問題は先生に聞こう。(OCV: Let's ask the teacher of this problem.)
彼の処に寄る積りだ。(CVN: I'm going to drop by him.) 彼女の不正は先生に見つかった。(SCV: Her cheating was found by the teacher.) 切手は郵便局に有る。(SCV: Stamps are sold in a post-office.) 花瓶は靴箱の上に置く。(OCV: A vase is to place on the shoe-box.) 皆は彼の大胆さに驚いた。(SCV: Everybody astounded at his boldness.) このバスは東京に行く。(SCV: This bus is going to Tokyo.) |
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| へ(e) | へは(ewa) | へも(emo) | ✔ | このバスは東京へ行く。(SCV: This bus is going to Tokyo.) | |||||||||
| まで(made) | までは (madewa) |
までも (mademo) |
✔ | ✔ | このバスは東京まで行く。(SCV: This bus is bound for Tokyo.)
この展覧会は週末までだ。(SC: This exhibition is until this weekend.) この車には５人まで乗れる。(OCV: This car can carry not more than five persons.) |
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| から(kara) | からは (karawa) |
からも (karamo) |
✔ | 大島行きの船はここから出る。(SCV: Ship to Oshima leaves from here.) | |||||||||
| より(yori) | よりは (yoriwa) |
よりも (yorimo) |
✔ | ✔ | バスではここより先には行けない。(CCCV: Bus is not available from here.)
案ずるより生むのがた易い。(COA: Doing is easier than considering.) |